Evolution from batch to modern OS
The history of operating systems reflects the evolution of computing technology from mechanical calculators to modern distributed systems. In the 1940s-1950s, computers operated without OSes using plugboards and manual programming. The first generation (1950s) introduced batch processing systems where operators grouped similar jobs to reduce setup time. The second generation (1960s) saw the development of multiprogramming systems that could run multiple jobs simultaneously, improving CPU utilization. IBM's OS/360 was a landmark system supporting multiple users and applications. The third generation (1970s-1980s) brought UNIX, which introduced hierarchical file systems, pipes, and a modular design that influenced future systems. The personal computer era (1980s) saw the rise of MS-DOS, Apple's Macintosh System, and eventually Windows, which popularized graphical user interfaces. The 1990s witnessed the emergence of network operating systems and open-source Linux, which became dominant in server environments. Modern era (2000s-present) includes mobile operating systems (iOS, Android), cloud-based systems, containerization technologies, and real-time embedded systems. Each evolutionary stage addressed limitations of previous systems while incorporating new hardware capabilities and user requirements, leading to today's sophisticated, secure, and user-friendly operating environments.